Suzerainty, Semi-Sovereignty, and International Legal Hierarchies on China's Borderlands

• Published in: Asian journal of international law (Cambridge, U.K.) U.K.), 2020-07, Vol.10 (2), p.293-320
• Main Author: ZHU, Yuan Yi
• Format: Article
• Language: English
• Subjects: 19th century; Chinese history; Colonialism; Colonies & territories; Diplomatic privileges and immunities; Historiography; Immunities of foreign states; International law; International relations; Sovereignty
• ISSN: 2044-2513; 2044-2521
• DOI: 10.1017/S204425132000020X

The concept of semi-sovereignty, a now obsolete category of international entities possessing limited sovereignty, remains hazily understood. However, the historical examination of how semi-sovereignty was defined and practised during the long nineteenth century can provide insights on the interplay between authority and control within the hierarchies of international relations. This paper examines one specific type of semi-sovereignty—namely, suzerainty—which is often used to describe China's traditional authority in Tibet and Mongolia. By examining the events that led to the acceptance of suzerainty as the legal framing for the China-Tibet and China-Mongolia relationships, I argue that suzerainty was a deliberately vague concept that could be used to create liminal international legal spaces to the advantage of Western states, and to mediate between competing claims of political authority. Finally, I point to the importance of semi-sovereignty as an arena of legal contestation between the Western and non-Western members of the “Family of Nations”.