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Khat, a Cultural Chewing Drug: A Toxicokinetic and Toxicodynamic Summary
Khat ( ) is a recreational, chewed herbal drug that has been used as a psychostimulant for centuries in East Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, namely in Somalia, Ethiopia, and Yemen. However, the growing worldwide availability of khat has produced widespread concern. The plant comprises a large numb...
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Published in: | Toxins 2022-01, Vol.14 (2), p.71 |
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description | Khat (
) is a recreational, chewed herbal drug that has been used as a psychostimulant for centuries in East Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, namely in Somalia, Ethiopia, and Yemen. However, the growing worldwide availability of khat has produced widespread concern. The plant comprises a large number of active substances, among which cathinone, cathine, and norephedrine are the main constituents, which can be included in the group of sympathomimetics of natural origin. In fact, these compounds are amphetamine analogues, and, as such, they have amphetamine-like nervous system stimulant effects. Chewing the leaves gives people a sensation of well-being and increases energy, alertness, and self-confidence. The chronic use of khat is, however, associated with severe cardiac, neurological, psychological, and gastrointestinal complications. The psychological dependence and withdrawal symptoms of khat are the reasons for its prolonged use. The aim of this paper is to review current knowledge on the khat plant with toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic perspectives. Namely, this review paper addresses in vitro, in vivo, and human studies. The models used, as well as the concentrations and doses with the respective biological effects, are discussed. Additionally, the main drug interactions involved with khat are described. |
doi_str_mv | 10.3390/toxins14020071 |
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) is a recreational, chewed herbal drug that has been used as a psychostimulant for centuries in East Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, namely in Somalia, Ethiopia, and Yemen. However, the growing worldwide availability of khat has produced widespread concern. The plant comprises a large number of active substances, among which cathinone, cathine, and norephedrine are the main constituents, which can be included in the group of sympathomimetics of natural origin. In fact, these compounds are amphetamine analogues, and, as such, they have amphetamine-like nervous system stimulant effects. Chewing the leaves gives people a sensation of well-being and increases energy, alertness, and self-confidence. The chronic use of khat is, however, associated with severe cardiac, neurological, psychological, and gastrointestinal complications. The psychological dependence and withdrawal symptoms of khat are the reasons for its prolonged use. The aim of this paper is to review current knowledge on the khat plant with toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic perspectives. Namely, this review paper addresses in vitro, in vivo, and human studies. The models used, as well as the concentrations and doses with the respective biological effects, are discussed. Additionally, the main drug interactions involved with khat are described.</description><identifier>ISSN: 2072-6651</identifier><identifier>EISSN: 2072-6651</identifier><identifier>DOI: 10.3390/toxins14020071</identifier><identifier>PMID: 35202099</identifier><language>eng</language><publisher>Switzerland: MDPI AG</publisher><subject>Alertness ; amphetamine-like ; Amphetamines ; Biological effects ; Catha - toxicity ; cathine ; cathinone ; Chewing ; Controlled substances ; Dopamine ; Herbal medicine ; Humans ; In vivo methods and tests ; kinetics ; Mastication ; Metabolism ; Metabolites ; Nervous system ; norpseudoephedrine ; Plant Leaves ; Review ; Sympathomimetics ; Toxicokinetics ; toxicology ; Well being ; Withdrawal</subject><ispartof>Toxins, 2022-01, Vol.14 (2), p.71</ispartof><rights>2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may use this content in accordance with the terms of the License.</rights><rights>2022 by the authors. 2022</rights><lds50>peer_reviewed</lds50><oa>free_for_read</oa><woscitedreferencessubscribed>false</woscitedreferencessubscribed><citedby>FETCH-LOGICAL-c484t-84c643a6fe740ad679c3ca276778916c9968809c0577b5637f80f1f69b1ba0683</citedby><cites>FETCH-LOGICAL-c484t-84c643a6fe740ad679c3ca276778916c9968809c0577b5637f80f1f69b1ba0683</cites><orcidid>0000-0001-7399-0197 ; 0000-0003-1382-5119 ; 0000-0002-6076-6900</orcidid></display><links><openurl>$$Topenurl_article</openurl><openurlfulltext>$$Topenurlfull_article</openurlfulltext><thumbnail>$$Tsyndetics_thumb_exl</thumbnail><linktopdf>$$Uhttps://www.proquest.com/docview/2633195443/fulltextPDF?pq-origsite=primo$$EPDF$$P50$$Gproquest$$Hfree_for_read</linktopdf><linktohtml>$$Uhttps://www.proquest.com/docview/2633195443?pq-origsite=primo$$EHTML$$P50$$Gproquest$$Hfree_for_read</linktohtml><link.rule.ids>230,314,725,778,782,883,25736,27907,27908,36995,36996,44573,53774,53776,74877</link.rule.ids><backlink>$$Uhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35202099$$D View this record in MEDLINE/PubMed$$Hfree_for_read</backlink></links><search><creatorcontrib>Silva, Bárbara</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Soares, Jorge</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Rocha-Pereira, Carolina</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Mladěnka, Přemysl</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Remião, Fernando</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>On Behalf Of The Oemonom Researchers</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>on behalf of The OEMONOM Researchers</creatorcontrib><title>Khat, a Cultural Chewing Drug: A Toxicokinetic and Toxicodynamic Summary</title><title>Toxins</title><addtitle>Toxins (Basel)</addtitle><description>Khat (
) is a recreational, chewed herbal drug that has been used as a psychostimulant for centuries in East Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, namely in Somalia, Ethiopia, and Yemen. However, the growing worldwide availability of khat has produced widespread concern. The plant comprises a large number of active substances, among which cathinone, cathine, and norephedrine are the main constituents, which can be included in the group of sympathomimetics of natural origin. In fact, these compounds are amphetamine analogues, and, as such, they have amphetamine-like nervous system stimulant effects. Chewing the leaves gives people a sensation of well-being and increases energy, alertness, and self-confidence. The chronic use of khat is, however, associated with severe cardiac, neurological, psychological, and gastrointestinal complications. The psychological dependence and withdrawal symptoms of khat are the reasons for its prolonged use. 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subjects | Alertness amphetamine-like Amphetamines Biological effects Catha - toxicity cathine cathinone Chewing Controlled substances Dopamine Herbal medicine Humans In vivo methods and tests kinetics Mastication Metabolism Metabolites Nervous system norpseudoephedrine Plant Leaves Review Sympathomimetics Toxicokinetics toxicology Well being Withdrawal |
title | Khat, a Cultural Chewing Drug: A Toxicokinetic and Toxicodynamic Summary |
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