The right tree in the right place? A major economic tree species poses major ecological threats

• Published in: Biological invasions 2023, Vol.25 (1), p.39-60
• Main Authors: Bellingham, P. J., Arnst, E. A., Clarkson, B. D., Etherington, T. R., Forester, L. J., Shaw, W. B., Sprague, R., Wiser, S. K., Peltzer, D. A.
• Format: Article
• Language: English
• Subjects: Biomedical and Life Sciences; Climate models; Costs; Developmental Biology; Ecology; Economics; Ecosystems; Freshwater & Marine Ecology; Grasslands; Growth rate; Indigenous species; Introduced species; Invasions; Invasive species; Life Sciences; Niches; Original Paper; Pinaceae; Pine; Pinus radiata; Plant Sciences; Plant species introduction; Plantations; Regulations; Southern Hemisphere; Strategic management
• ISSN: 1387-3547; 1573-1464
• DOI: 10.1007/s10530-022-02892-6

Tree species in the Pinaceae are some of the most widely introduced non-native tree species globally, especially in the southern hemisphere. In New Zealand, plantations of radiata pine ( Pinus radiata D. Don) occupy c . 1.6 million ha and form 90% of planted forests. Although radiata pine has naturalized since 1904, there is a general view in New Zealand that this species has not invaded widely. We comprehensively review where radiata pine has invaded throughout New Zealand. We used a combination of observational data and climate niche modelling to reveal that invasion has occurred nationally. Climate niche modelling demonstrates that while current occurrences are patchy, up to 76% of the land area (i.e. 211,388 km 2 ) is climatically capable of supporting populations. Radiata pine has mainly invaded grasslands and shrublands, but also some forests. Notably, it has invaded lower-statured vegetation, including three classes of naturally uncommon ecosystems, primary successions and secondary successions. Overall, our findings demonstrate pervasive and ongoing invasion of radiata pine outside plantations. The relatively high growth rates and per individual effects of radiata pine may result in strong effects on naturally uncommon ecosystems and may alter successional trajectories. Local and central government currently manage radiata pine invasions while propagule pressure from existing and new plantations grows, hence greater emphasis is warranted both on managing current invasions and proactively preventing future radiata pine invasions. We therefore recommend a levy on new non-native conifer plantations to offset costs of managing invasions, and stricter regulations to protect vulnerable ecosystems. A levy on economic uses of invasive species to offset costs of managing invasions alongside stricter regulations to protect vulnerable ecosystems could be a widely adopted measure to avert future negative impacts.