The Extent and Duration of Primary Schooling in Eighteenth-Century America

• Published in: History of education quarterly 2023-08, Vol.63 (3), p.313-335
• Main Author: Shammas, Carole
• Format: Article
• Language: English
• Subjects: 18th century; 19th century; Academic Standards; Administrative Organization; Arithmetic; Autobiographies; Bans; Basic Skills; Child Labor; Children; Children & youth; Democracy; Education; Educational Attainment; Educational Experience; Educational History; Egalitarianism; Elementary Education; Elementary Schools; Enrollment; Enrollment Rate; Enrollment Trends; Enrollments; Evidence; Handwriting; Human Capital; Labor Demands; Legislation; Literacy; Mathematics; Numeracy; Parents; Population; Primary Education; Protestantism; School Surveys; Schools; Scientific Concepts
• ISSN: 0018-2680; 1748-5959
• DOI: 10.1017/heq.2023.12

The educational attainment literature has brought back interest in early American primary schools, and much current research views those schools as superior to their European peers in the education offered to youth. Its emphasis, though, on using school enrollment as the prime indicator of attainment conflicts with the revisionist view of a previous generation of historians who argued that education in the heavily rural and agricultural society of the time should be considered as a process of social reproduction delivered by households, with schools being peripheral for most youth. This article, relying on evidence from statutes, indentures, and a 1798 New York State school survey, finds increased resort to primary schooling over the eighteenth century, attributable not to American exceptionalism but to a transatlantic movement away from scribal-dominated literacy and numeracy toward common use of a standardized written vernacular and “arithmetic by pen.” However, the dependence of households on child labor meant that the Three Rs did not get distributed in either an egalitarian or compact fashion. Small doses spread over a number of years—educational sprawl—best describes the system, and it lasted through much of the nineteenth century.