Exploiting the Phenomenon of Liquid–Liquid Phase Separation for Enhanced and Sustained Membrane Transport of a Poorly Water-Soluble Drug

• Published in: Molecular pharmaceutics 2016-06, Vol.13 (6), p.2059-2069
• Main Authors: Indulkar, Anura S, Gao, Yi, Raina, Shweta A, Zhang, Geoff G. Z, Taylor, Lynne S
• Format: Article
• Language: English
• Subjects: Biological Transport - physiology; Chemistry, Pharmaceutical - methods; Crystallization - methods; Delayed-Action Preparations - chemistry; Diffusion; Membranes - metabolism; Nanoparticles - chemistry; Pharmaceutical Preparations - chemistry; Solubility; Solutions - chemistry; Water - chemistry
• ISSN: 1543-8384; 1543-8392
• DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.6b00202

Recent studies on aqueous supersaturated lipophilic drug solutions prepared by methods including antisolvent addition, pH swing, or dissolution of amorphous solid dispersions (ASDs) have demonstrated that when crystallization is slow, these systems undergo liquid–liquid phase separation (LLPS) when the concentration of the drug in the medium exceeds its amorphous solubility. Following LLPS, a metastable equilibrium is formed where the concentration of drug in the continuous phase corresponds to the amorphous solubility while the dispersed phase is composed of a nanosized drug-rich phase. It has been reasoned that the drug-rich phase may act as a reservoir, enabling the rate of passive transport of the drug across a membrane to be maintained at the maximum value for an extended period of time. Herein, using clotrimazole as a model drug, and a flow-through diffusion cell, the reservoir effect is demonstrated. Supersaturated clotrimazole solutions at concentrations below the amorphous solubility show a linear relationship between the maximum flux and the initial concentration. Once the concentration exceeds the amorphous solubility, the maximum flux achieved reaches a plateau. However, the duration for which the high flux persists was found to be highly dependent on the number of drug-rich nanodroplets present in the donor compartment. Macroscopic amorphous particles of clotrimazole did not lead to the same reservoir effect observed with the nanodroplets formed through the process of LLPS. A first-principles mathematical model was developed which was able to fit the experimental receiver concentration–time profiles for concentration regimes both below and above amorphous solubility, providing support for the contention that the nanodroplet phase does not directly diffuse across the membrane but, instead, rapidly replenishes the drug in the aqueous phase that has been removed by transport across the membrane. This study provides important insight into the properties of supersaturated solutions and how these might in turn impact oral absorption through effects on passive membrane transport rates.