Active pixel imagers incorporating pixel-level amplifiers based on polycrystalline-silicon thin-film transistors

• Published in: Medical physics (Lancaster) 2009-07, Vol.36 (7), p.3340-3355
• Main Authors: El-Mohri, Youcef, Antonuk, Larry E., Koniczek, Martin, Zhao, Qihua, Li, Yixin, Street, Robert A., Lu, Jeng-Ping
• Format: Article
• Language: English
• Subjects: 1/f noise; active pixel array; AMPLIFIERS; Amplifiers, Electronic; Capacitance; Capacitors; continuous photodiode; DESIGN; detective quantum efficiency; diagnostic radiography; elemental semiconductors; Equipment Design; image sensors; INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY; Medical imaging; Modulation transfer functions; PHOTODIODES; Photodiodes; phototransistors; photoresistors; Photomicrography; POLYCRYSTALS; poly‐Si TFTs; QUANTUM EFFICIENCY; Radiation Imaging Physics; RADIATION PROTECTION AND DOSIMETRY; Radiographic Image Enhancement - instrumentation; Radiography; Radiography - instrumentation; READOUT SYSTEMS; SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS; SIGNALS; silicon; Silicon Compounds; SPATIAL RESOLUTION; Thermal noise; thin film transistors; THIN FILMS; Time Factors; Transistors, Electronic; X RADIATION; X‐ray optics
• ISSN: 0094-2405; 2473-4209; 0094-2405
• DOI: 10.1118/1.3116364

Active matrix, flat-panel imagers (AMFPIs) employing a 2D matrix of a -Si addressing TFTs have become ubiquitous in many x-ray imaging applications due to their numerous advantages. However, under conditions of low exposures and/or high spatial resolution, their signal-to-noise performance is constrained by the modest system gain relative to the electronic additive noise. In this article, a strategy for overcoming this limitation through the incorporation of in-pixel amplification circuits, referred to as active pixel (AP) architectures, using polycrystalline-silicon (poly-Si) TFTs is reported. Compared to a -Si, poly-Si offers substantially higher mobilities, enabling higher TFT currents and the possibility of sophisticated AP designs based on both n - and p -channel TFTs. Three prototype indirect detection arrays employing poly-Si TFTs and a continuous a -Si photodiode structure were characterized. The prototypes consist of an array (PSI-1) that employs a pixel architecture with a single TFT, as well as two arrays (PSI-2 and PSI-3) that employ AP architectures based on three and five TFTs, respectively. While PSI-1 serves as a reference with a design similar to that of conventional AMFPI arrays, PSI-2 and PSI-3 incorporate additional in-pixel amplification circuitry. Compared to PSI-1, results of x-ray sensitivity demonstrate signal gains of ∼ 10.7 and 20.9 for PSI-2 and PSI-3, respectively. These values are in reasonable agreement with design expectations, demonstrating that poly-Si AP circuits can be tailored to provide a desired level of signal gain. PSI-2 exhibits the same high levels of charge trapping as those observed for PSI-1 and other conventional arrays employing a continuous photodiode structure. For PSI-3, charge trapping was found to be significantly lower and largely independent of the bias voltage applied across the photodiode. MTF results indicate that the use of a continuous photodiode structure in PSI-1, PSI-2, and PSI-3 results in optical fill factors that are close to unity. In addition, the greater complexity of PSI-2 and PSI-3 pixel circuits, compared to that of PSI-1, has no observable effect on spatial resolution. Both PSI-2 and PSI-3 exhibit high levels of additive noise, resulting in no net improvement in the signal-to-noise performance of these early prototypes compared to conventional AMFPIs. However, faster readout rates, coupled with implementation of multiple sampling protocols allowed by the nondestructive nature of pixel