The Sub-Neptune Desert and Its Dependence on Stellar Type: Controlled by Lifetime X-Ray Irradiation

• Published in: The Astrophysical journal 2019-05, Vol.876 (1), p.22
• Main Authors: McDonald, George D., Kreidberg, Laura, Lopez, Eric
• Format: Article
• Language: English
• Subjects: Astrophysics; Bolometers; Demographics; Deserts; Extrasolar planets; Fluctuations; Fluxes; Irradiation; Lifetime; Low mass stars; Planet detection; planets and satellites: atmospheres; planets and satellites: gaseous planets; planets and satellites: physical evolution; Polls & surveys; Radiation; Satellites; Transit; X ray irradiation; X-ray emissions; X-ray fluxes; X-rays: stars
• ISSN: 0004-637X; 1538-4357
• DOI: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab1095

Short-period sub-Neptunes with substantial volatile envelopes are among the most common type of known exoplanets. However, recent studies of the Kepler population have suggested a dearth of sub-Neptunes on highly irradiated orbits, where they are vulnerable to atmospheric photoevaporation. Physically, we expect this "photoevaporation desert" to depend on the total lifetime X-ray and extreme ultraviolet flux, the main drivers of atmospheric escape. In this work, we study the demographics of sub-Neptunes as a function of lifetime exposure to high-energy radiation and host-star mass. We find that for a given present-day insolation, planets orbiting a 0.3 M star experience ∼100× more X-ray flux over their lifetimes versus a 1.2 M star. Defining the photoevaporation desert as a region consistent with zero occurrence at 2 , the onset of the desert happens for integrated X-ray fluxes greater than 1.43 × 1022 to 8.23 × 1020 as a function of planetary radii for 1.8-4 R⊕. We also compare the location of the photoevaporation desert for different stellar types. We find much greater variability in the desert onset in the bolometric flux space compared to the integrated X-ray flux space, suggestive of photoevaporation driven by steady-state stellar X-ray emissions as the dominant control on desert location. Finally, we report tentative evidence for the sub-Neptune valley, first seen around Sun-like stars, for M&K dwarfs. The discovery of additional planets around low-mass stars from surveys such as the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite mission will enable detailed exploration of these trends.