Constraining the geometry of the reflection nebula NGC 2023 with [O i]: emission & absorption

• Published in: Monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 2023-11, Vol.525 (4), p.5468-5478
• Main Authors: Mookerjea, Bhaswati, Sandell, Göran, Güsten, Rolf, Wiesemeyer, Helmut, Okada, Yoko, Jacobs, Karl
• Format: Article
• Language: English
• Subjects: Absorption; Atomic oxygen; Blue shift; Emission spectra; Excitation; Line spectra; Massive stars; Molecular clouds; Nebulae; Star & galaxy formation; Star formation; Stellar spectra
• ISSN: 0035-8711; 1365-2966
• DOI: 10.1093/mnras/stad2644

ABSTRACT We have mapped the NGC 2023 reflection nebula in the 63 and 145 $\mu$m transitions of [O i] and the 158 $\mu$m [C ii] spectral lines using the heterodyne receiver upGREAT on SOFIA. The observations were used to identify the diffuse and dense components of the photon-dominated region (PDR) traced by the [C ii] and [O i] emission, respectively. The velocity-resolved observations reveal the presence of a significant column of low-excitation atomic oxygen, seen in absorption in the [O i] 63 $\mu$m spectra, amounting to about 20–60 per cent of the oxygen column seen in emission in the [O i] 145 $\mu$m spectra. Some self-absorption is also seen in [C ii], but for the most part it is hardly noticeable. The [C ii] and [O i] 63 $\mu$m spectra show strong red- and blue-shifted wings due to photoevaporation flows especially in the south-eastern and southern part of the reflection nebula, where comparison with the mid- and high-J CO emission indicates that the C+ region is expanding into a dense molecular cloud. Using a two-slab toy model the large-scale self-absorption seen in [O i] 63 $\mu$m is readily explained as originating in foreground low-excitation gas associated with the source. Similar columns have also been observed recently in other Galactic PDRs. These results have two implications: for the velocity-unresolved extragalactic observations this could impact the use of [O i] 63 $\mu$m as a tracer of massive star formation and secondly, the widespread self-absorption in [O i] 63 $\mu$m leads to underestimate of the column density of atomic oxygen derived from this tracer and necessitates the use of alternative indirect methods.