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Effect of a 3-day high-fat feeding period on carbohydrate balance and ad libitum energy intake in humans
Objective: A reduction in glycogen after the switch to an isoenergetic high-fat diet (HFD) might promote a compensatory increase in food intake to reestablish carbohydrate balance. We assessed the effect of an isoenergetic switch from a 49%-carbohydrate to 50%-fat diet on nutrient balance and ad lib...
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| Published in: | International Journal of Obesity 2010-05, Vol.34 (5), p.886-891 |
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| container_end_page | 891 |
| container_issue | 5 |
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| container_title | International Journal of Obesity |
| container_volume | 34 |
| creator | Galgani, J E de Jonge, L Most, M M Bray, G A Smith, S R |
| description | Objective:
A reduction in glycogen after the switch to an isoenergetic high-fat diet (HFD) might promote a compensatory increase in food intake to reestablish carbohydrate balance. We assessed the effect of an isoenergetic switch from a 49%-carbohydrate to 50%-fat diet on nutrient balance and
ad libitum
food intake. We hypothesized that carbohydrate balance would be inversely related to
ad libitum
energy intake.
Methods:
In 47 men and 11 women (22.6±0.4 years; 26.1±0.5 kg m
–2
), fuel balance was measured in a respiration chamber over 4 days. During the first day, an isoenergetic, high-carbohydrate diet was provided followed by a 3-day isoenergetic, HFD. At the end of this period and after 16 h of fasting, three options of foods (cookies, fruit salad and turkey sandwich) were offered
ad libitum
for 4 h. The relationships between post-chamber
ad libitum
intake and macronutrient oxidation and balance measured day-to-day and over the 4-day respiration chamber stay were studied.
Results:
After switching to a HFD, 24-h respiratory quotient decreased from 0.87±0.02 to 0.83±0.02 (
P |
| doi_str_mv | 10.1038/ijo.2010.16 |
| format | article |
| fullrecord | <record><control><sourceid>gale_pubme</sourceid><recordid>TN_cdi_pubmedcentral_primary_oai_pubmedcentral_nih_gov_4381993</recordid><sourceformat>XML</sourceformat><sourcesystem>PC</sourcesystem><galeid>A227077994</galeid><sourcerecordid>A227077994</sourcerecordid><originalsourceid>FETCH-LOGICAL-c670t-60d38949c0270ce9e741f092da2d790beacb7a44b1ff225fdd59fd36b8eae3c43</originalsourceid><addsrcrecordid>eNqFkk2LFDEQhhtR3HH15F2Coh60x3x0pzsXYVnWD1jwoueQTirdGXuSMekW5t-bZsbdHVmQHIqknqpKvbxF8ZzgNcGs_eA2YU3xcuMPihWpGl7WlWgeFivMcFPimtdnxZOUNhjjusb0cXGWcVHTlq2K4cpa0BMKFinESqP2aHD9UFo1IQtgnO_RDqILBgWPtIpdGPYmqglQp0blNSDlDVIGja5z07xF4CH2e-T8pH5CDmiYt8qnp8Ujq8YEz47xvPjx6er75Zfy-tvnr5cX16XmDZ5Kjg1rRSU0pg3WIKCpiMWCGkVNI3AHSneNqqqOWEtpbY2phTWMdy0oYLpi58XHQ9_d3G3BaPBTVKPcRbdVcS-DcvI0490g-_BbVqwlQrDc4O2xQQy_ZkiT3LqkYczLQpiTbKqKU0549X-SMcExISKTL_8hN2GOPusgKRGUMVrTDL06QL0aQTpvQ_6fXlrKC5rVaBohlqHre6h8DGydDh6sy-8nBW_uFAygxmlIYZwnF3w6Bd8dQB1DShHsjWgEy8VpMjtNLk6ThGf6xV2db9i_1srA6yOgklajjdksLt1ylLctqZa13x-4lFO-h3irzX1z_wC73uhK</addsrcrecordid><sourcetype>Open Access Repository</sourcetype><iscdi>true</iscdi><recordtype>article</recordtype><pqid>219233252</pqid></control><display><type>article</type><title>Effect of a 3-day high-fat feeding period on carbohydrate balance and ad libitum energy intake in humans</title><source>Springer Nature - Connect here FIRST to enable access</source><creator>Galgani, J E ; de Jonge, L ; Most, M M ; Bray, G A ; Smith, S R</creator><creatorcontrib>Galgani, J E ; de Jonge, L ; Most, M M ; Bray, G A ; Smith, S R</creatorcontrib><description>Objective:
A reduction in glycogen after the switch to an isoenergetic high-fat diet (HFD) might promote a compensatory increase in food intake to reestablish carbohydrate balance. We assessed the effect of an isoenergetic switch from a 49%-carbohydrate to 50%-fat diet on nutrient balance and
ad libitum
food intake. We hypothesized that carbohydrate balance would be inversely related to
ad libitum
energy intake.
Methods:
In 47 men and 11 women (22.6±0.4 years; 26.1±0.5 kg m
–2
), fuel balance was measured in a respiration chamber over 4 days. During the first day, an isoenergetic, high-carbohydrate diet was provided followed by a 3-day isoenergetic, HFD. At the end of this period and after 16 h of fasting, three options of foods (cookies, fruit salad and turkey sandwich) were offered
ad libitum
for 4 h. The relationships between post-chamber
ad libitum
intake and macronutrient oxidation and balance measured day-to-day and over the 4-day respiration chamber stay were studied.
Results:
After switching to a HFD, 24-h respiratory quotient decreased from 0.87±0.02 to 0.83±0.02 (
P
<0.0001) resulting in a 4-day cumulative carbohydrate, fat and protein balances of −183±368, 342±480 and 65±267 kcal, respectively. Cumulative energy balance (224±362 kcal per 4 days) did not influence
ad libitum
energy intake. However, we detected that 4-day carbohydrate balance was a positive and independent predictor of post-chamber
ad libitum
energy intake (
R
2
=0.10;
P
=0.01), whereas no significant influence of fat and protein balances was found.
Conclusion:
In response to an isoenergetic change from a high-carbohydrate to HFD, higher carbohydrate balance related to increased energy intake.</description><identifier>ISSN: 0307-0565</identifier><identifier>EISSN: 1476-5497</identifier><identifier>DOI: 10.1038/ijo.2010.16</identifier><identifier>PMID: 20195283</identifier><identifier>CODEN: IJOBDP</identifier><language>eng</language><publisher>London: Nature Publishing Group UK</publisher><subject>631/443/319/333/1465 ; 631/45/287/1182 ; 631/45/72/1201 ; Adolescent ; Adult ; Bioenergetics ; Biological and medical sciences ; Biomedical research ; Carbohydrates ; Diet ; Dietary Carbohydrates - administration & dosage ; Dietary Carbohydrates - metabolism ; Dietary Fats - administration & dosage ; Dietary Fats - metabolism ; Energy ; Energy balance ; Energy Intake ; Energy Metabolism ; Epidemiology ; Feeding Behavior ; Female ; Food ; Food Preferences ; Fruits ; Glycogen - metabolism ; Health aspects ; Health Promotion and Disease Prevention ; Humans ; Internal Medicine ; Ketogenic diet ; Male ; Medical sciences ; Medicine ; Medicine & Public Health ; Menstruation ; Metabolic Diseases ; Metabolism ; Nutrient balance ; Obesity ; Obesity - metabolism ; original-article ; Oxidation ; Oxidation-Reduction ; Oxygen Consumption ; Physiological aspects ; Proteins ; Public Health ; Research centers ; Respiration ; Time Factors ; Young Adult</subject><ispartof>International Journal of Obesity, 2010-05, Vol.34 (5), p.886-891</ispartof><rights>Macmillan Publishers Limited 2010</rights><rights>2015 INIST-CNRS</rights><rights>COPYRIGHT 2010 Nature Publishing Group</rights><rights>Copyright Nature Publishing Group May 2010</rights><lds50>peer_reviewed</lds50><oa>free_for_read</oa><woscitedreferencessubscribed>false</woscitedreferencessubscribed><citedby>FETCH-LOGICAL-c670t-60d38949c0270ce9e741f092da2d790beacb7a44b1ff225fdd59fd36b8eae3c43</citedby><cites>FETCH-LOGICAL-c670t-60d38949c0270ce9e741f092da2d790beacb7a44b1ff225fdd59fd36b8eae3c43</cites></display><links><openurl>$$Topenurl_article</openurl><openurlfulltext>$$Topenurlfull_article</openurlfulltext><thumbnail>$$Tsyndetics_thumb_exl</thumbnail><link.rule.ids>230,314,780,784,885,27924,27925</link.rule.ids><backlink>$$Uhttp://pascal-francis.inist.fr/vibad/index.php?action=getRecordDetail&idt=22688142$$DView record in Pascal Francis$$Hfree_for_read</backlink><backlink>$$Uhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20195283$$D View this record in MEDLINE/PubMed$$Hfree_for_read</backlink></links><search><creatorcontrib>Galgani, J E</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>de Jonge, L</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Most, M M</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Bray, G A</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Smith, S R</creatorcontrib><title>Effect of a 3-day high-fat feeding period on carbohydrate balance and ad libitum energy intake in humans</title><title>International Journal of Obesity</title><addtitle>Int J Obes</addtitle><addtitle>Int J Obes (Lond)</addtitle><description>Objective:
A reduction in glycogen after the switch to an isoenergetic high-fat diet (HFD) might promote a compensatory increase in food intake to reestablish carbohydrate balance. We assessed the effect of an isoenergetic switch from a 49%-carbohydrate to 50%-fat diet on nutrient balance and
ad libitum
food intake. We hypothesized that carbohydrate balance would be inversely related to
ad libitum
energy intake.
Methods:
In 47 men and 11 women (22.6±0.4 years; 26.1±0.5 kg m
–2
), fuel balance was measured in a respiration chamber over 4 days. During the first day, an isoenergetic, high-carbohydrate diet was provided followed by a 3-day isoenergetic, HFD. At the end of this period and after 16 h of fasting, three options of foods (cookies, fruit salad and turkey sandwich) were offered
ad libitum
for 4 h. The relationships between post-chamber
ad libitum
intake and macronutrient oxidation and balance measured day-to-day and over the 4-day respiration chamber stay were studied.
Results:
After switching to a HFD, 24-h respiratory quotient decreased from 0.87±0.02 to 0.83±0.02 (
P
<0.0001) resulting in a 4-day cumulative carbohydrate, fat and protein balances of −183±368, 342±480 and 65±267 kcal, respectively. Cumulative energy balance (224±362 kcal per 4 days) did not influence
ad libitum
energy intake. However, we detected that 4-day carbohydrate balance was a positive and independent predictor of post-chamber
ad libitum
energy intake (
R
2
=0.10;
P
=0.01), whereas no significant influence of fat and protein balances was found.
Conclusion:
In response to an isoenergetic change from a high-carbohydrate to HFD, higher carbohydrate balance related to increased energy intake.</description><subject>631/443/319/333/1465</subject><subject>631/45/287/1182</subject><subject>631/45/72/1201</subject><subject>Adolescent</subject><subject>Adult</subject><subject>Bioenergetics</subject><subject>Biological and medical sciences</subject><subject>Biomedical research</subject><subject>Carbohydrates</subject><subject>Diet</subject><subject>Dietary Carbohydrates - administration & dosage</subject><subject>Dietary Carbohydrates - metabolism</subject><subject>Dietary Fats - administration & dosage</subject><subject>Dietary Fats - metabolism</subject><subject>Energy</subject><subject>Energy balance</subject><subject>Energy Intake</subject><subject>Energy Metabolism</subject><subject>Epidemiology</subject><subject>Feeding Behavior</subject><subject>Female</subject><subject>Food</subject><subject>Food Preferences</subject><subject>Fruits</subject><subject>Glycogen - metabolism</subject><subject>Health aspects</subject><subject>Health Promotion and Disease Prevention</subject><subject>Humans</subject><subject>Internal Medicine</subject><subject>Ketogenic diet</subject><subject>Male</subject><subject>Medical sciences</subject><subject>Medicine</subject><subject>Medicine & Public Health</subject><subject>Menstruation</subject><subject>Metabolic Diseases</subject><subject>Metabolism</subject><subject>Nutrient balance</subject><subject>Obesity</subject><subject>Obesity - metabolism</subject><subject>original-article</subject><subject>Oxidation</subject><subject>Oxidation-Reduction</subject><subject>Oxygen Consumption</subject><subject>Physiological aspects</subject><subject>Proteins</subject><subject>Public Health</subject><subject>Research centers</subject><subject>Respiration</subject><subject>Time Factors</subject><subject>Young Adult</subject><issn>0307-0565</issn><issn>1476-5497</issn><fulltext>true</fulltext><rsrctype>article</rsrctype><creationdate>2010</creationdate><recordtype>article</recordtype><recordid>eNqFkk2LFDEQhhtR3HH15F2Coh60x3x0pzsXYVnWD1jwoueQTirdGXuSMekW5t-bZsbdHVmQHIqknqpKvbxF8ZzgNcGs_eA2YU3xcuMPihWpGl7WlWgeFivMcFPimtdnxZOUNhjjusb0cXGWcVHTlq2K4cpa0BMKFinESqP2aHD9UFo1IQtgnO_RDqILBgWPtIpdGPYmqglQp0blNSDlDVIGja5z07xF4CH2e-T8pH5CDmiYt8qnp8Ujq8YEz47xvPjx6er75Zfy-tvnr5cX16XmDZ5Kjg1rRSU0pg3WIKCpiMWCGkVNI3AHSneNqqqOWEtpbY2phTWMdy0oYLpi58XHQ9_d3G3BaPBTVKPcRbdVcS-DcvI0490g-_BbVqwlQrDc4O2xQQy_ZkiT3LqkYczLQpiTbKqKU0549X-SMcExISKTL_8hN2GOPusgKRGUMVrTDL06QL0aQTpvQ_6fXlrKC5rVaBohlqHre6h8DGydDh6sy-8nBW_uFAygxmlIYZwnF3w6Bd8dQB1DShHsjWgEy8VpMjtNLk6ThGf6xV2db9i_1srA6yOgklajjdksLt1ylLctqZa13x-4lFO-h3irzX1z_wC73uhK</recordid><startdate>20100501</startdate><enddate>20100501</enddate><creator>Galgani, J E</creator><creator>de Jonge, L</creator><creator>Most, M M</creator><creator>Bray, G A</creator><creator>Smith, S R</creator><general>Nature Publishing Group UK</general><general>Nature Publishing Group</general><scope>IQODW</scope><scope>CGR</scope><scope>CUY</scope><scope>CVF</scope><scope>ECM</scope><scope>EIF</scope><scope>NPM</scope><scope>AAYXX</scope><scope>CITATION</scope><scope>3V.</scope><scope>7T2</scope><scope>7TK</scope><scope>7TS</scope><scope>7X2</scope><scope>7X7</scope><scope>7XB</scope><scope>88E</scope><scope>88G</scope><scope>8AO</scope><scope>8C1</scope><scope>8FE</scope><scope>8FH</scope><scope>8FI</scope><scope>8FJ</scope><scope>8FK</scope><scope>ABUWG</scope><scope>AFKRA</scope><scope>ATCPS</scope><scope>AZQEC</scope><scope>BBNVY</scope><scope>BENPR</scope><scope>BHPHI</scope><scope>C1K</scope><scope>CCPQU</scope><scope>DWQXO</scope><scope>FYUFA</scope><scope>GHDGH</scope><scope>GNUQQ</scope><scope>HCIFZ</scope><scope>K9.</scope><scope>LK8</scope><scope>M0K</scope><scope>M0S</scope><scope>M1P</scope><scope>M2M</scope><scope>M7P</scope><scope>PQEST</scope><scope>PQQKQ</scope><scope>PQUKI</scope><scope>PSYQQ</scope><scope>Q9U</scope><scope>7X8</scope><scope>7U2</scope><scope>5PM</scope></search><sort><creationdate>20100501</creationdate><title>Effect of a 3-day high-fat feeding period on carbohydrate balance and ad libitum energy intake in humans</title><author>Galgani, J E ; de Jonge, L ; Most, M M ; Bray, G A ; Smith, S R</author></sort><facets><frbrtype>5</frbrtype><frbrgroupid>cdi_FETCH-LOGICAL-c670t-60d38949c0270ce9e741f092da2d790beacb7a44b1ff225fdd59fd36b8eae3c43</frbrgroupid><rsrctype>articles</rsrctype><prefilter>articles</prefilter><language>eng</language><creationdate>2010</creationdate><topic>631/443/319/333/1465</topic><topic>631/45/287/1182</topic><topic>631/45/72/1201</topic><topic>Adolescent</topic><topic>Adult</topic><topic>Bioenergetics</topic><topic>Biological and medical sciences</topic><topic>Biomedical research</topic><topic>Carbohydrates</topic><topic>Diet</topic><topic>Dietary Carbohydrates - administration & dosage</topic><topic>Dietary Carbohydrates - metabolism</topic><topic>Dietary Fats - administration & dosage</topic><topic>Dietary Fats - metabolism</topic><topic>Energy</topic><topic>Energy balance</topic><topic>Energy Intake</topic><topic>Energy Metabolism</topic><topic>Epidemiology</topic><topic>Feeding Behavior</topic><topic>Female</topic><topic>Food</topic><topic>Food Preferences</topic><topic>Fruits</topic><topic>Glycogen - metabolism</topic><topic>Health aspects</topic><topic>Health Promotion and Disease Prevention</topic><topic>Humans</topic><topic>Internal Medicine</topic><topic>Ketogenic diet</topic><topic>Male</topic><topic>Medical sciences</topic><topic>Medicine</topic><topic>Medicine & Public Health</topic><topic>Menstruation</topic><topic>Metabolic Diseases</topic><topic>Metabolism</topic><topic>Nutrient balance</topic><topic>Obesity</topic><topic>Obesity - metabolism</topic><topic>original-article</topic><topic>Oxidation</topic><topic>Oxidation-Reduction</topic><topic>Oxygen Consumption</topic><topic>Physiological aspects</topic><topic>Proteins</topic><topic>Public Health</topic><topic>Research centers</topic><topic>Respiration</topic><topic>Time Factors</topic><topic>Young Adult</topic><toplevel>peer_reviewed</toplevel><toplevel>online_resources</toplevel><creatorcontrib>Galgani, J E</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>de Jonge, L</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Most, M M</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Bray, G A</creatorcontrib><creatorcontrib>Smith, S R</creatorcontrib><collection>Pascal-Francis</collection><collection>Medline</collection><collection>MEDLINE</collection><collection>MEDLINE (Ovid)</collection><collection>MEDLINE</collection><collection>MEDLINE</collection><collection>PubMed</collection><collection>CrossRef</collection><collection>ProQuest Central (Corporate)</collection><collection>Health and Safety Science Abstracts (Full archive)</collection><collection>Neurosciences Abstracts</collection><collection>Physical Education Index</collection><collection>Agricultural Science Collection</collection><collection>Health & Medical Collection</collection><collection>ProQuest Central (purchase pre-March 2016)</collection><collection>Medical Database (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>Psychology Database (Alumni)</collection><collection>ProQuest Pharma Collection</collection><collection>Public Health Database</collection><collection>ProQuest SciTech Collection</collection><collection>ProQuest Natural Science Collection</collection><collection>Hospital Premium Collection</collection><collection>Hospital Premium Collection (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>ProQuest Central (Alumni) (purchase pre-March 2016)</collection><collection>ProQuest Central (Alumni)</collection><collection>ProQuest Central</collection><collection>Agricultural & Environmental Science Collection</collection><collection>ProQuest Central Essentials</collection><collection>Biological Science Collection</collection><collection>ProQuest Central</collection><collection>ProQuest Natural Science Collection</collection><collection>Environmental Sciences and Pollution Management</collection><collection>ProQuest One Community College</collection><collection>ProQuest Central Korea</collection><collection>Health Research Premium Collection</collection><collection>Health Research Premium Collection (Alumni)</collection><collection>ProQuest Central Student</collection><collection>SciTech Premium Collection</collection><collection>ProQuest Health & Medical Complete (Alumni)</collection><collection>ProQuest Biological Science Collection</collection><collection>Agriculture Science Database</collection><collection>Health & Medical Collection (Alumni Edition)</collection><collection>Medical Database</collection><collection>Psychology Database</collection><collection>ProQuest Biological Science Journals</collection><collection>ProQuest One Academic Eastern Edition (DO NOT USE)</collection><collection>ProQuest One Academic</collection><collection>ProQuest One Academic UKI Edition</collection><collection>ProQuest One Psychology</collection><collection>ProQuest Central Basic</collection><collection>MEDLINE - Academic</collection><collection>Safety Science and Risk</collection><collection>PubMed Central (Full Participant titles)</collection><jtitle>International Journal of Obesity</jtitle></facets><delivery><delcategory>Remote Search Resource</delcategory><fulltext>fulltext</fulltext></delivery><addata><au>Galgani, J E</au><au>de Jonge, L</au><au>Most, M M</au><au>Bray, G A</au><au>Smith, S R</au><format>journal</format><genre>article</genre><ristype>JOUR</ristype><atitle>Effect of a 3-day high-fat feeding period on carbohydrate balance and ad libitum energy intake in humans</atitle><jtitle>International Journal of Obesity</jtitle><stitle>Int J Obes</stitle><addtitle>Int J Obes (Lond)</addtitle><date>2010-05-01</date><risdate>2010</risdate><volume>34</volume><issue>5</issue><spage>886</spage><epage>891</epage><pages>886-891</pages><issn>0307-0565</issn><eissn>1476-5497</eissn><coden>IJOBDP</coden><abstract>Objective:
A reduction in glycogen after the switch to an isoenergetic high-fat diet (HFD) might promote a compensatory increase in food intake to reestablish carbohydrate balance. We assessed the effect of an isoenergetic switch from a 49%-carbohydrate to 50%-fat diet on nutrient balance and
ad libitum
food intake. We hypothesized that carbohydrate balance would be inversely related to
ad libitum
energy intake.
Methods:
In 47 men and 11 women (22.6±0.4 years; 26.1±0.5 kg m
–2
), fuel balance was measured in a respiration chamber over 4 days. During the first day, an isoenergetic, high-carbohydrate diet was provided followed by a 3-day isoenergetic, HFD. At the end of this period and after 16 h of fasting, three options of foods (cookies, fruit salad and turkey sandwich) were offered
ad libitum
for 4 h. The relationships between post-chamber
ad libitum
intake and macronutrient oxidation and balance measured day-to-day and over the 4-day respiration chamber stay were studied.
Results:
After switching to a HFD, 24-h respiratory quotient decreased from 0.87±0.02 to 0.83±0.02 (
P
<0.0001) resulting in a 4-day cumulative carbohydrate, fat and protein balances of −183±368, 342±480 and 65±267 kcal, respectively. Cumulative energy balance (224±362 kcal per 4 days) did not influence
ad libitum
energy intake. However, we detected that 4-day carbohydrate balance was a positive and independent predictor of post-chamber
ad libitum
energy intake (
R
2
=0.10;
P
=0.01), whereas no significant influence of fat and protein balances was found.
Conclusion:
In response to an isoenergetic change from a high-carbohydrate to HFD, higher carbohydrate balance related to increased energy intake.</abstract><cop>London</cop><pub>Nature Publishing Group UK</pub><pmid>20195283</pmid><doi>10.1038/ijo.2010.16</doi><tpages>6</tpages><oa>free_for_read</oa></addata></record> |
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| ispartof | International Journal of Obesity, 2010-05, Vol.34 (5), p.886-891 |
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| source | Springer Nature - Connect here FIRST to enable access |
| subjects | 631/443/319/333/1465 631/45/287/1182 631/45/72/1201 Adolescent Adult Bioenergetics Biological and medical sciences Biomedical research Carbohydrates Diet Dietary Carbohydrates - administration & dosage Dietary Carbohydrates - metabolism Dietary Fats - administration & dosage Dietary Fats - metabolism Energy Energy balance Energy Intake Energy Metabolism Epidemiology Feeding Behavior Female Food Food Preferences Fruits Glycogen - metabolism Health aspects Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Humans Internal Medicine Ketogenic diet Male Medical sciences Medicine Medicine & Public Health Menstruation Metabolic Diseases Metabolism Nutrient balance Obesity Obesity - metabolism original-article Oxidation Oxidation-Reduction Oxygen Consumption Physiological aspects Proteins Public Health Research centers Respiration Time Factors Young Adult |
| title | Effect of a 3-day high-fat feeding period on carbohydrate balance and ad libitum energy intake in humans |
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